Call for research
and
funding partnerships
The current JSPS-funded #yogascapesinjapan project ends in November 2019.
I'm already looking for funding to carry on with the next project, #YiJ2.
Below, is a brief overview of what I intend to do over the next five years.
If you are interested in collaborating, hosting, or financing this project, please let me know.
Research Title
From Individual Wellbeing to Global Wellbeing
Moral Economies, Yoga Tourism, and
Sustainable Development Goals
across the Global South
Outline of Planned Research
India’s AYUSH Ministry asserts that its ‘Common Yoga Protocol’ purportedly represents the paragon of moral-political economies that can achieve the United Nations’ Agenda 2030 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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Building upon recent trends in the global wellness tourism economy; which explains, that "The wellness concept is transforming almost every aspect of travel and wellness tourism will only grow faster in years ahead, as it lies at the powerful intersection of two massive, booming industries: the $2.6 trillion tourism industry and the $4.2 trillion wellness market.” |
Therefore, from within the $6.8 trillion global wellness tourism industry, this project critically examines the unintended consequences of consuming ‘yogic lifestyles.' It does this through analysis of the ‘transformative (self-)development’ narrative.
The Bottom Line...or Underlying Premise
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1) Is yoga and yoga tourism beneficial for achieving SDGs? 2) What points of entry does using yoga create? (some examples are: role of play and development, theatre and development, and sport and development) 3) With whom and with what impacts? 4) Particularly in relation to SDG#12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), how can we best measure success? |
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For an informative conference panel on Tourism and the SDGs Conference #Tourism4SDGs19, click HERE. Some of the images, above, are taken from the UNWTO presentation at the conference, as well as the Tourism4SDGs website. More comprehensive information related to SDG#12 is found, HERE. As an academic, I am interested in how I can become involved. Click on the bottom right image to see how you too can become involved.
Purpose of the Research
This projects is situated at the intersection of faith-based aid, religion, soft-power politics, development, and the promotion of yoga-related lifestyles. As Chika Watanabe discusses in her new book, Becoming One: Religion, Development, and Environmentalism in a Japanese NGO in Myanmar, few scholars have looked at the connections between religion and development. Fewer have looked at faith-based aid beyond Western religious aid; and fewer, still, have looked at the ambivalent legacies of these relations. Considering this context, none have explored the soft-power politics of yoga-based aid as implemented by the United Nations, its connections to the Sustainable Development Goals of Agenda 2030 (#Yoga4SDGs -- also #Tourism4SDGs), and the faith-based development work of Indian-origin, non-state institutions working internationally, like the Art of Living Foundation; which is apparently the world's largest volunteer-based NGO, now operating in 155 countries.
This project consists of two parts; which critically examine the moral, economic, and socio-political entanglement of wellness tourism consumers within a complicated global web of imaginative consumption, sustainable development discourse, and popularist politics. This requires in-country anthropological fieldwork in several locations spread across Asia and Africa, within tourist reliant economies of the global south.
Part 1 empirically analyses the success of incorporating yoga-related lifestyle ideals and wellness tourism toward achieving the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development goals. These 17 goals focus on balancing social development, environmental protection, and economic growth. The Japanese government is firmly committed to these goals. This part includes exploring the co-relation between the marketing of yogic lifestyles as fundamentally sustainable instead within the context of the reality of the 'value-action gap'.
This project consists of two parts; which critically examine the moral, economic, and socio-political entanglement of wellness tourism consumers within a complicated global web of imaginative consumption, sustainable development discourse, and popularist politics. This requires in-country anthropological fieldwork in several locations spread across Asia and Africa, within tourist reliant economies of the global south.
Part 1 empirically analyses the success of incorporating yoga-related lifestyle ideals and wellness tourism toward achieving the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development goals. These 17 goals focus on balancing social development, environmental protection, and economic growth. The Japanese government is firmly committed to these goals. This part includes exploring the co-relation between the marketing of yogic lifestyles as fundamentally sustainable instead within the context of the reality of the 'value-action gap'.
Part 2 furthers Dr McCartney’s current research related to the ways in which global consumers of yoga are potentially enculturated to unwittingly lend support to the Hindu nationalist project; which normalises its ideology through the soft power instrumentalisation of yoga and Sanskrit.
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Economists, such as Raghuram Rajan, see the value in supporting the 'third pillar;' which is another way to understand society, or communities. Rajan makes the case in his latest book for supporting local communities who are marginalised by global and state-led economic policies; which quite often forget to really consider the humans in their models. Since yoga is seen by many to be a fruitful way to bring communities together, perhaps there is some merit to the assertion that yoga is good for sustainable development?
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This is Kyoto City's information page on their involvement towards #Kyoto4SDGs, and information recently found on Kyoto public transport announcing Kyoto's #1 national SDG city ranking. Related to this is the VARANASI AND KYOTO INITIATIVE; which includes a Trans-Asian Buddhist Corridor as a Roadmap to Transcendence. This is Inspired by Hon Prime Minister Narendra Modi's vision, the VAKYO initiative aims to connect the heritage cultural cities of Varanasi and Kyoto through the India Japan Global Partnership. It will derive inspiration from Kyoto to develop Varanasi as a Smart Heritage City. Below, is a file containing some interesting information about India's Smart City Initiative; which is overseen by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, @SmartCities_HUA. The second file is the official Japan-India Vision Statement released by Japan's MOFA; which discusses "Digital India”, “Start-Up India” and “Smart City” with Japan's “Society 5.0” and the SDGs. But, the "development" in Varanasi is destroying heritage. |
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The Indian Ministry of AYUSH and the Kanagawa Prefectural government have agreed to work bilaterally on the promotion of yoga and Ayurveda in Japan, as well as bring Japanese AI technology to the medical industry in India. This is part of Modi's agenda to instrumentalise traditional medicine as the next soft power device after yoga.
For some extra information on the TABC, click HERE.
This is a map I made plotting the "Buddhist nodes" of tourism as listed on the TABC website.
Society 5.0
Society 5.0 was proposed in the 5th Science and Technology Basic Plan as a future society that Japan should aspire to. It follows the hunting society (Society 1.0), agricultural society (Society 2.0), industrial society (Society 3.0), and information society (Society 4.0).
What is Society 5.0?
One definition: "A human-centered society that balances economic advancement with the resolution of social problems by a system that highly integrates cyberspace and physical space."
Society 5.0 Will Bring About a Human-centered Society
In society up to now, a priority has generally been placed on social, economic, and organizational systems with the result that gaps have arisen in products and services that individuals receive based on individual abilities and other reasons. In contrast, Society 5.0 achieves advanced convergence between cyberspace and physical space, enabling AI-based on big data and robots to perform or support as an agent the work and adjustments that humans have done up to now. This frees humans from everyday cumbersome work and tasks that they are not particularly good at, and through the creation of new value, it enables the provision of only those products and services that are needed to the people that need them at the time they are needed, thereby optimizing the entire social and organizational system.
This is a society centered on each and every person and not a future controled and monitored by AI and robots. Achieving Society 5.0 with these attributes would enable not just Japan but the world as well to realize economic development while solving key social problems. It would also contribute to meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations.
Japan aims to become the first country in the world to achieve a human-centered society (Society 5.0) in which anyone can enjoy a high quality of life full of vigor. It intends to accomplish this by incorporating advanced technologies in diverse industries and social activities and fostering innovation to create new value.
Below, is an anthem for the environment sung in Sanskrit. The poster on the right is a flyer for a 5 km fun 'Run for Samskritam.' The text at the bottom of the flyer is reproduced below.
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"Swami Vivekananda traveled the length and breadth of Bharatha [India] to unify the youth and lead them towards building a self-sustainable Dharmic nation. “Bharatha’s pride lies in two things: Samskritam and Samskriti”, said He. What better way to commemorate Swami’s Jayanti in 2019 than to promote Samskritam? Join hands (and legs ) by participating in this first of a kind 5k Run. Never before has a marathon taken place for the sustenance of a Bhasha and Samskriti. Are you ready to create history?Arise! Awake! and Run! Stop not till the goal is reached!"
Let us briefly explore Part 1.
On June 20, 2016, the United Nations hosted a ‘Conversation with Yoga Masters’ to discuss ‘Yoga for the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals’ (#Yoga4SDGs). Speakers at this event suggested that yoga is the greatest “gift to the world,” as well as the best method for achieving a sustainable society, through “spiritual progress.”
This advocacy aims to leverage India’s intangible cultural capital to represent India as the moral paragon and “world guru.” The practicable means are found within the policies of India’s AYUSH Ministry; which promotes the ‘Common Yoga Protocol’ as the official ‘yoga lifestyle’ that ought to be adopted by every global citizen. However, other non-state groups promote their develop-inspired, utopian aspirations couched in yoga-inflected rhetoric.
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Yoga means ‘differently similar’ things to a variety of people. This allows different utopian aspirations to align and intersect in subtle ways. As a technology of the self, yoga is commodified to facilitate both individual and global wellbeing through the perceived cosmopolitan ideal of a trans-urban, post-national, ‘yogic way of life.’ According to Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, this lifestyle is a powerful instrument to help tackle climate change. So too, he asserts that yoga is a “Path to wellness;” which apparently “makes us better individuals in thought, action, knowledge, and devotion.” This sentiment is the core of the Indian state’s soft power diplomacy.
They build upon what the Minister of External Affairs, Sushma Swaraj, explained at the World Sanskrit Conference in Bangkok, 2015, that:
“Sanskrit should be propagated so that it purifies the minds of the people and thus sanctifies the whole world. […] Knowledge in Sanskrit will go a long way in finding solutions to the contemporary problems like: global warming, unsustainable consumption, civilisational clash, poverty, terrorism, etc.”
These soft power instruments are mentioned in these recent discussions on Indian foreign policy.
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For an extended overview and example of how this political theology manifests in popular books about 'vedic yoga,' and a utopian 'new golden age;' see the attached file.
| The new 'golden age' manifesto |
Below, are some examples of how the discourse within Yogaland can be structured. These examples come from the Vikasa Yoga Teacher Training Manual. Notice how words, such as 'transformation,' 'evolution' and 'sustainable lifestyle' are woven together to encourage the attitude that becoming a yoga teacher will help the individual teach others, not just yoga, but also the moral benefits that are 'needed more now in modern society than it ever was.' This begins with the proposition that, Yoga is probably needed more now in modern society than it ever was and it is now becoming an accepted part of modern life. By preserving the traditions and methods of yoga, many more people can reap the significantly important benefits and joys that it brings to individuals and the masses alike.
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Millions of people, all around the world, assume that yoga is not only good for the individual wellbeing, but it is also good for global wellbeing. In fact, producers and consumers of yoga-inflected lifestyles are often filled with a missionary zeal; and assert that, if everyone pledged to make yoga an integral part of their daily life, the world would simply be a better place to live. The question is: What exactly are people pledging their support to? The often overlooked and under appreciated issue is that the unintended consequences of neoliberal coercion related to the consumption of ‘yogic lifestyles’ is underwritten by the ethno-nationalist, proto-fascist, political theology known as Hindutva (Hinduness).
Millions of people, all around the world, assume that yoga is not only good for the individual wellbeing, but it is also good for global wellbeing. In fact, producers and consumers of yoga-inflected lifestyles are often filled with a missionary zeal; and assert that, if everyone pledged to make yoga an integral part of their daily life, the world would simply be a better place to live. The question is: What exactly are people pledging their support to? The often overlooked and under appreciated issue is that the unintended consequences of neoliberal coercion related to the consumption of ‘yogic lifestyles’ is underwritten by the ethno-nationalist, proto-fascist, political theology known as Hindutva (Hinduness).
Dr McCartney’s previous research (see Academia) investigates the subtle ways in which the banal interest in spirituality and yoga by ‘global consumers of yoga’ can lead towards enculturation and tacit support of Hindu nationalist ideology; which takes a generic version of neoliberalism and reconstitutes it through a development model narrative towards facilitating cultural renewal and geopolitical imperialism to create a pan-global Hindu theocracy. In this age of popularist politics, this under considered component is ripe for investigation.
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Particularly, if we consider how volunteer organisations link themselves to the SDGs, like: Sewa International, Sewa Bharati and Art of Living Foundation; which are faith-based development organisations that have a sharp ideological edge, and work in many countries under the guise of humanitarian efforts to "transform society." Still, while there is a certain amount of literature on faith-based NGOs and ideological development work, there is little discussion about yoga-faith-based development; particularly in relation to sustainable yoga-inflected tourism. Although, a very good starting point to understand macro issues is the edited volume: Development, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations: Bridging the Sacred and the Secular.
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In relation to Part 2, building upon criticisms of non-economic aspects of tourism and non-people friendly development models, the aim is to critically examine and measure—both quantitatively and qualitatively—the success of developing nations incorporating yogic ideals embedded within the moral-political theology behind the Indian state’s agenda. This raises many ethical, as well as pragmatic questions related to the ‘transformative (self-)development’ narrative found within the USD 4.3 trillion global wellness industry; which currently promotes the catchphrase, transformative travel.
This transformative lifestyle rhetoric exists in the marketing of yoga teacher-training courses. Like the one that Shantarasa Yoga offers: "When you train with Shantarasa Yoga Darshana you access a superlative training system that has successfully prepared hundreds of teachers who are now enjoying the thrill of contributing to the health and upliftment of people all over the world. Our mentoring and trainings are annually conducted on four continents and continue to support and educate yoga practitioners in over 10 countries. Sadhana and Keval are highly gifted yoga educators who have spent their whole adult lives dedicated to living and imparting an authentic yogic way of life. We invite you to participate in this exciting and truly transformative conscious life journey."
A perceived yogic lifestyle becomes the perfect vehicle for this transformation supposedly to occur. This rhetoric highlights the move to capitalise on the fastest-growing sector of the tourism industry; which is currently valued at USD 680 billion, and is expected to grow to USD 808 billion by 2020. While wellness tourism is currently 15 percent of the total tourism industry’s revenue; it is growing more than twice as fast as overall tourism. And, in an effort to counter the ill effects of mass tourism, niche-speciality ‘wellness tourism’ is now actively promoted as a ‘sustainable alternative.’ Also, while the proposed benefits of tourism might relieve poverty in tourist-reliant economies, there are many unintended consequences, such as an increase in pollution.
A local example, from Japan, is that tourism now provides approximately USD1.85 trillion to Japan’s economy. Japanese citizens increasingly use the phrase “tourism pollution (kangō かんごう , 観光; kōgai こうがい, 公害)” to describe their annoyance at the amount of tourists cluttering streets and driving up prices. Yet, just how much of Japan’s tourist pollution, or any country, for that matter, is related directly to yoga-inflected wellness tourism, when most foreign tourists to Japan only stay between 4-6 days? Also, recent reports suggest that the increase in international tourism is affecting the domestic tourism market, particularly those now choosing to avoid Kyoto due to its congestion.
Yet, could wellness travel be the solution to overtourism?
Yet, we find assertions, such as the following, from an established Japanese Sanskrit teacher, Medha Michika, who has published several books on Sanskrit, some of which are used in university-level Sanskrit courses in Japan, also has significant authority within the Japanese yoga community, as she successfully straddles the practitioner-teacher divide. This gives her a certain amount of influence. In her article, titled: "ヴェーダの智慧 幸せな人生マニュアル; Veda's wisdom happy life manual," Watanabe explains, that: "人生の目的とは？世界は何の為にある？神とは何か？に全て答えるのがヴェーダ。ヴェーダの教えを理解する為の生き方がヒンドゥー教。幸せを最短で最大にする為の人生マニュアル、ヴェーダの智慧を紹介します; What is the purpose of life? What is the world for? What is God? The Veda answers all. The way of life to understand the teachings of the Veda is Hinduism. I will introduce the wisdom of Veda, the life manual for maximizing happiness in the shortest possible time." It goes on to elaborate, that: "正しく考えることを推奨する唯一の宗教、ヒンドゥー ヒンドゥーの文化の根源である、聖典「ヴェーダ」の最終的な教えは、客観的に正しく考える事の出来る人によってのみ、理解出来るようになっています。The only religion to recommend thinking correctly is Hinduism. The final teachings of the 'Veda' scripture are the root of Hindu culture, and can only be understood by those who can objectively think correctly." And, also, that: "スケールが大きすぎて、正しく考えられないかも知れません。この、絶対的に最大のスケールでの理解に必要な、客観性を培うための生活規範が、ヒンドゥーの生き方なのです。The scale may be too big and may not be considered correctly. This is absolutely necessary for understanding on the largest scale. The standard of living for cultivating objectivity is the Hindu life style."
What can we say for other countries? Particularly, like the new yoga superpower, China; which seeks to leverage its manufacturing prowess in making yoga mats, pants, and other accoutrements; just as much as hopes to dilute India's yoga-related softpower ambitions. China’s president, Xi Jinping, plans to exterminate extreme poverty by 2020 through yoga tourism in rural areas, as well as increase morality through the proposed benefits of adopting ‘yogic ways of life’.
One example is the Africa Yoga Project in Kenya, which offers yoga courses and voluntourism through its Seva safaris; which is for global yoga tourists to use Africa as an orientalist-inspired, yoga-inflected tourist destination.
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The Indian state wants to increase its wellness industry revenue from USD20 billion; and, also, reclaim symbolic control of yoga and double inbound tourism from 10 million to 20 million people, within the next three years. However, even though yoga tourism is marketed as ‘sustainable,’ there appears to be no implementable policy from the Indian Ministry of Tourism to counter the unavoidable increase in the global carbon supply chain.
The 2017 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report (2007-2017) shows that, as India’s tourism ranking increases, its environmental sustainability ranking decreases.
Ranked 40th/136, India is ranked further, for: tourist infrastructure (110th), prioritization of travel and tourism (104th), environmental sustainability (134th), safety and security (114th), and health and hygiene (104th).
And, compared with the significant increase in international arrivals between 2010 and 2015 to the ‘Greater Mekong sub-region’ (Myanmar +490 percent, Cambodia +91.5 percent, Thailand +87 percent, Laos +72 percent, and Vietnam +52 percent; these countries have overall rankings of: Myanmar NA, Cambodia 101, Viet Nam 67, Thailand 34, Laos 94, Vietnam 67).
India’s rankings seem to complicate the fundamental assertion that a ‘yogic way of life’ is going to help achieve sustainable development. While it is more difficult to currently speak about yoga-related wellness tourism in these other Asian countries, let alone the African countries: Zambia 108, Angola NA, Senegal 111, South Africa 53, Kenya 80, and Tanzania 91, that are also included in this study.
Yet, a crucial, unresolved issue within the development sector remains; how to best co-ordinate qualitative and quantitative analysis of development performance? Beyond glossy photos and testimonials on websites, what benefits can we chart? One example relates to The Centre for Economic and Social Rights; which explains how the multidimensional character of some goals might be lost in trying to track progress within single indicators.
One advancement in this sector has been the creation of the B-Corp certification. However, while there are approximately 50,000 companies participating, only about 10 are related to yoga. What is the cause of reluctance for yoga-related companies to be involved? Particularly when "Certified B Corporations are businesses that meet the highest standards of verified social and environmental performance, public transparency, and legal accountability to balance profit and purpose. B Corps are accelerating a global culture shift to redefine success in business and build a more inclusive and sustainable economy." Or, is this just more corporate greenwashing? These videos and presentation make it clearer. As does this booklet. To gain certification, one begins with this self-assessment.
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Research Plan and Method
The methodological approach chosen caters for the ontological and epistemological assumptions implicit within the structuring discourses of the global wellness/yoga industry. The ontological assumptions are post-positivist; and, in part, build upon the critical rationalism of Karl Popper. The social realist epistemology aims to identify the different forms knowledge takes, and how it effects learning by also considering the knowers involved. The embodied form knowledge takes is the various ‘yogic lifestyles’ promoted by the Indian state and other wellness-tourism and development operators within the global wellness industry. Practically speaking, the intention is to conduct anthropologically-informed fieldwork in several non-profit SDG-oriented organisations and for-profit wellness tourism businesses located across countries located in the global south.
Some of the pertinent questions this project seeks to answer, are:
What constitutes the Indian state’s official ‘yogic lifestyle’ protocol? Can we measure the impact of a ‘yogic way of life’ towards attaining Agenda 2030 goals? If ‘yes,’ how best approach this? What are the unintended socio-political consequences of yoga’s global popularity? How and why is yoga promoted to practically achieve the United Nations’ Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goals? Which countries have adopted the protocol? How are yoga-related lifestyles embedded within neoliberal and ethno- nationalist ideologies? What types of unlikely alliances and strategic syncretism occur between various non-state and state actors within the global wellness industry? Is yoga-related wellness tourism actually sustainable?
Objective 1 — Identify suitable field sites. Method: Utilise yoga tourism search engines, such as Book Yoga Retreats and International Volunteer HQ.
Some of the pertinent questions this project seeks to answer, are:
What constitutes the Indian state’s official ‘yogic lifestyle’ protocol? Can we measure the impact of a ‘yogic way of life’ towards attaining Agenda 2030 goals? If ‘yes,’ how best approach this? What are the unintended socio-political consequences of yoga’s global popularity? How and why is yoga promoted to practically achieve the United Nations’ Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goals? Which countries have adopted the protocol? How are yoga-related lifestyles embedded within neoliberal and ethno- nationalist ideologies? What types of unlikely alliances and strategic syncretism occur between various non-state and state actors within the global wellness industry? Is yoga-related wellness tourism actually sustainable?
Objective 1 — Identify suitable field sites. Method: Utilise yoga tourism search engines, such as Book Yoga Retreats and International Volunteer HQ.
Objective 2 — Attend chosen yoga-related volontourism (volunteer+tourism) and wellness tourism opportunities in a variety of locations, like: Jiva Studio, Vietnam; Whispering Seed, Myanmar; Krama Yoga, Cambodia; Azahar Foundation, Ivory Coast and Cambodia; Earth Child Project, Ahim'SA, Lion Yoga, Township Yogi Project, South Africa; Prism Yoga, Senegal; Yoga for Nature, Zambia; and Africa Yoga Project, Kenya. Methods: Participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires.
Objective 3 — Collect the niche (wellness) tourism and development-related policies and government and industry statistics from tourism-related boards, like: India's Ministry of Tourism, the African Tourism Board, and the Mekong Tourism Board; and other institutions like the World Economic Forum, plus different tourism and development documents from other targeted countries.
Objective 4 — Identify the major, interrelated rhetorical themes of the marketing strategies of the global wellness industry. Methods: Apply critical narrative/discourse analysis to a variety of documents, including, but not limited to: government reports, white papers, policy documents, industry reports, various communications via several social media platforms, as well as strategic advertising campaigns from both for-profit and non-profit organisations. Apply as-needed qualitative and quantitative methods, CAQDAS (Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis).
Objective 5 — Identify the official ‘yoga lifestyle’ promoted by the Indian government. Methods: Analyse India’s Ministry of External Affairs, AYUSH, and Tourism publications. Starting with the Common Yoga Protocol.
Objective 6 — Develop an analytic rubric to assess yoga’s ability to achieve the Agenda 2030 goals. Methods: Apply a grounded theoretical approach; and, as a research affiliate with the Organization for Identity and Cultural Development, liaise with other members and work toward, and beyond, the OICD Goals and Objectives 2017 - 2020.
Objective 5 — Identify the official ‘yoga lifestyle’ promoted by the Indian government. Methods: Analyse India’s Ministry of External Affairs, AYUSH, and Tourism publications. Starting with the Common Yoga Protocol.
Objective 6 — Develop an analytic rubric to assess yoga’s ability to achieve the Agenda 2030 goals. Methods: Apply a grounded theoretical approach; and, as a research affiliate with the Organization for Identity and Cultural Development, liaise with other members and work toward, and beyond, the OICD Goals and Objectives 2017 - 2020.
I'm looking for funding from November 2019, onwards.
Please, contact me if you would like to discuss ways to host my research at your institution, and help with funding.
I am also looking for people who might be interested in collaborating on this multinational research project.
Potential collaborators could be other post-docs, PhD candidates or even highly motivated masters' students.
If you have an ethnographic interest, skills in relevant languages and cultures, and an interest in exploring the politics and economics of the imaginative consumption of wellness tourism in relation to yoga-inspired (spiritual) tourism;
please contact: Patrick McCartney.
Yogascapes in Japan by Patrick McCartney is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
